Resilient Cities

Resilience is a term that has been also applied to cities to describe them as adaptable, secure, and sustainable. In the article 'Resilient Cities', Peter Newman describes the seven features of resilient cities as archetypes:

1- The Renewable Energy City - cities that maximizes the use of natural and renewable energy sources in order to reduce their ecological footprint. New cities as Masdar in United Arab Emirates or even old cities as Freiburg are adopting this concepts.

2- The Carbon-neutral City - many neighbourhoods are adopting this concept - as BedZED, previously discussed - successfully, the main challenge now is how to apply it to a whole city, but many cities are now adopting strategies to achieve this.

3- The Distributed City - this consists in distribute the power and water systems through the city, decentralizing the system into small systems. Buildings could use the complete water cycle - from clean to gray and black water, produce at least part of its own energy, etc. Cities as New York and London are adopting this concept.

4- The Biophilic City - uses of natural processes in the infrastructure - green roofs and green walls, as well as urban farms, and large uses of vegetation in urban areas. Chicago and Toronto already requires green roofs in commercial buildings.

5- The Eco-efficient City - based on reduction of waste and resources requirements, including 'cradle to cradle' concepts. Kalundborg in Denmark and Kwinana in Australia are good examples of cities adopting this strategy.

6- The Place-based City - place really matters. The place-based city is based on strategies to increase local production and economic development, and the sense of place for its inhabitants that also influence in the development of the city and in its ecological footprint.

7- The Sustainable Transport City - as transport is the most important infrastructure to the city, this strategy aims to reduce fossil fuel consumption by adopting policies to encourage people to walk, use bicycle and public transport - which can be powered by renewable energy.

Applying these concepts to new or existing cities is a challenge, but as the demand for new environmental-friendly solutions increases it cannot be disregarded, being also a great opportunity to developers.

Source: Newman, P, Beatley, T, Boyer, H 2009, 'Resilient Cities', in Haas, T (ed.) 2012, Sustainable Urbanism and Beyond - Rethinking Cities for the Future, Rizzoli, New York.

Mitigation and Adaptation

These two terms are often used to describe our attitude towards environmental problems such as climate change for example. The principle of adaptation is based on recognizing that the factors are given as it is and we cannot change it, our attitude should be adapt ourselves to it; while the principle of mitigation is based on changing our behaviour in order to change given circumstances.

Talking about climate change, the principle of adaptation would suggest that we must accept these changes and adapt the world - in a large scale, or a building in a smaller scale - for a new climate. This could lead to a new way of thinking, of planning and designing. If we consider the mitigation process we must act in order to revert this circumstances, once more through planning and design.

In this situation, to adopt the adaptation process would be the same as to affirm that our behaviour and lifestyle does not affect the climate, and so, our greenhouse gas emissions have no impact in the climate, we should maintain things as it is and only adapt ourselves to future changes. On the other hand, adopting the mitigation process, we must change our behaviour, try to live more sustainably in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, to change this situation - we have created let's say - for a better future.

The two approaches give us different perspectives of how we could act given the situation is already uncomfortable and some action is needed. However, one does not exclude another. If we consider mitigation as a process, our behaviour changes aiming to revert the situation in the future - to not change the climate for instance - will demand some changes now, and by doing this we will be somehow adapting to the present situation. And so does the adaptation process - by changing and adapting we also contribute to environmental changes that will reflect in the future. For example, to avoid overheat in buildings we improve its design in order to adapt the building for the circumstances - using green roofs, green walls, solar panels that uses the heat for generating energy, etc - and as we adapt it we are also using the mitigation process, improving the quality of the environment in a long term process. So, it is important to note that most processes are both mitigation and adaptation.

However, some actions must be taken quickly to avoid imminent loss and damages, and we cannot think only in long term, but instead of think in one or another, we must think in both  as a unique process, for short and long terms, improving the quality of life for this and future generations, and most importantly, for all kind of life in the planet. If we can adapt ourselves to these changes, many other species may not be able to it, and may disappear in near future - disregarding many already extinct species - an irreversible damage.

The role of architects, urban planners and all involved in the built environment is to improve the quality of life trough design regarding that all environments are connected - as McDonough says in 'Cradle to Cradle', there is no 'away'. It is more than clear that we need to change our behaviour and lifestyle if we expect a better future, and this could be done for everyone, through adaptation and mitigation processes.

Big Dig Boston

An interesting example of how old structures found in the city - that are eventually demolished and discarded - can be reused as treated as new materials for other uses, something even better than recycling.

There is many complains due to the high cost of the Big Dig project - around U$14bi - but the attempt to reuse the beams and slabs is not valuable? And how much should cost the benefits of having public green spaces in a city?

Source: PBS 2009, 'Gray to Green?', accessed 23 May 2014, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pdw9MWElRbk>

Evaluating Sustainability

Many ways of evaluate sustainability in projects are easily available and can help architects, designers, urban planners and developers - for example - to check their projects. Some are more easy to use than others, but in all cases the three pillars of sustainability - environmental, economic, social - are required in the analysis.

But more important than any scale is the question 'is this project demanding more than it can offer?' A simple question with a hard answer. The complexity of environmental impacts needs to be considered and studied in every project, as well as the social and economic impacts, and the key for a successful project is obviously the consideration of each one of these topics.

Source: Haas, T (ed.) 2012, Sustainable Urbanism and Beyond - Rethinking Cities for the Future, Rizzoli, New York.

Reykjavík

Reykjavík is the capital of Island, a city with 120 thousand habitants and the most populous in the country. The city had a significant development after the second world war, with the modernisation and population growth.

Reykjavík is one of the top sustainable cities in the world - figuring in the top of many ranks considering carbon emissions. The main reason is that the city is largely powered by renewable energy - the geothermal activity from its surroundings is converted into energy, and distributed to the city, being responsible for almost 95% of the heating of the city, nothing even seen in another contemporary city in the world.

In 2006, 26,5% of electricity originated from geothermal sources, 73,4% from hydropower and only 0,1% from other sources. Some estimative show that annually the use of renewable sources to produce energy made Reykjavík save 4 million tons of CO2 from its emissions between 1944 and 2006 . The city's plan is that by 2050 the city will be completely free from fossil fuels.

Sources: Danish Architecture Centre 2014, Reykjavik: The Ground Heats The City, accessed 20 May 2014 < http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-cities/sustainable-cities/all-cases/energy/reykjavik-the-ground-heats-the-city/>;

Green City Times, Reykjavik (renewable energy mecca), accessed 20 May 2014, < http://www.greencitytimes.com/Sustainable-Cities/reykjavik.html>;

Mihelich, P 2007, Iceland phasing out fossil fuels for clean energy, accessed 20 May 2014 < http://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/science/09/18/driving.iceland/index.html>.

Rooftop Farming

Building's rooftop are usually underused despite its potential as an open space. Green roofs benefits are today largely known: for its aesthetics, for controlling and retaining stormwater, for reducing heat island effects and improve air quality, reduce noise and heat in bellow spaces, and for contributing to the increase of biodiversity.

Moreover, rooftops can also be used for producing food. The concept of urban agriculture aims to reduce carbon footprint and increase sustainability levels by producing local food, and so, reducing the impacts in transport and the waste that occur in delivering and stocking.

Besides the concepts of vertical farms - which are more ambitious let's say - the use of rooftop as an extent to urban farming can securely be applied in urban centres. Of course in existing building eventually structural reinforcements need to be made, however  in many developing cities this innovations could be tested in large scale.

Source: McDonough, W 2014, Concept for Rooftop Farming, accessed 18 May 2014 < http://mcdonoughpartners.com/project/concept-for-rooftop-farming/>

Barcelona - sustainable urban planning

For the last three decades Barcelona has been regarded as a good example of urban planning, especially after the Olympic Games in 1992, when the coastal industrial zone was revitalized an until today is an example of waterfront area.

Continuing the urban development, the City has been trying to continue the legacy of environmental, economic and social sustainable development.

The main project was the waterfront, which open an industrial area to public use and the change impacted in the air and water quality. Continuing the project development, the 'Forum Park' was designed to treat city's sewage, just in front of the sea, and on the top of it people will be able to enjoy its gardens and open spaces. It also produces energy and the heat produced is used to make hot and cold water circulate in the subsoil of the district.

Another project going on is related to automobiles - in Barcelona they occupy up to 70% of public space - called 'supermanzanas' or super street blocks, island of 400 x 400 m of buildings in which cars can only entry in small streets circulating at 10km/h, cutting traffic by 25% and changing the life into the city by opening room for the creation of new public areas.

Lastly, the council is trying to mix the uses between commercial and residential in order to renew the neighborhoods, and improving the transport by setting up a single fare system as happens in other cities and by implementing the shared bicycle system.

Following the trend of developing/renewing sustainable cities, Barcelona is for the last three decades and still a good example of it.

Source: Colomé, J 2011, 'How Barcelona is aiming to become the leader in sustainable urban planning', Urban World: Urban Sustainable Mobility, Vol. 2 ,Issue 5, pp. 30-34.

China, from red to green?

Today, China is one of the most developing countries in the world and perhaps the biggest economic growth the world has ever seen. The big question is how to sustain such economic growth - around 10 per cent a year - without causing damages to the environment, and considering the impact of China's growth it can not only impact on their own country but in all planet, affecting all ecosystems and living species in the world.

In the most coal consumer country, in every two years, China adds the equivalent of the country of Brazil to its power grid.

How to do it sustainably? Or even, can it be done sustainably?

The PBS E2 series discusses how it is being done and the next steps to achieve China's sustainable development.

Source: PBS 2009, 'China: from red to green?', accessed 18 May 2014, < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xu1t5CtcbEU&list=TLZs0Y9bpqVUlUb8v6ccCrpi81umKRUqU_>

Walkable cities

One of the ways to make people use less transport is to encourage them to walk. A simple task, but a challenge in urban centres. The attempt to achieve that by implementing exclusive pedestrian streets and improve the quality of public spaces through better design is now common in many central areas in cities all over the world. The trend of mixed-uses in urban areas is fundamental as facilities need to be in proximity with the user - what goes directly against the urban sprawl.

In Mumbai, 6 of 10 people walk to their destinations in the morning. The demand for space is huge, and despite that, private vehicles occupies most part of the public spaces. The conflict between pedestrians , cyclists and vehicles was so intense that the government decides to create lanes exclusive for pedestrians and series of footbridges. Transport improvements are still being discussed but a lot of pedestrian friendly public spaces are now seen along the city.

In Nairobi, sixty per cent of the population lives in slums and only a small part of the population can buy cars. Despite the urban planning of the city being based on vehicles, only a few have access to it, and consequently informal commerce have appeared in outer areas. The demand for walking spaces in the city moved the city council to implement safer urban environments with walkways along the main avenues. Although much still have to be done, a signal of change is now seen.

In many small size cities in developed countries it is easy to see improvements in the public areas and many pedestrian and cyclists-friendly streets. However, the effort and the pursue to provide a walkable and connected city is seem in many cities of the developing countries as well, where the challenge is unquestionably higher although the needs are the same.

Source: Phatak, V, Muchire, P 2011, 'On foot nm Mumbai, Nairobi and Mexico City', Urban World: Urban Sustainable Mobility, Vol. 2 ,Issue 5, pp. 5-6.

Renewable City Toolbox

The potential for renewable is immense. In urban centres, many efforts are being made to utilize all potential of the natural and renewable energy to reduce costs and improve efficiency and quality in urban environments. Especially in smaller developing cities where there is more opportunity to test new and innovative technologies.

In the book 'Renewable City', Droege sums up the tool that could be used given the source of renewable energy available.

- Solar energy - could be captured by photovoltaics and solar-thermal systems - largely used in commercial, residential or industrial buildings, or in rural areas as well.

- Wind energy - captured by turbines - for its size and impacts it could be used in remote areas or remote buildings. However in smaller scale it can also be used on the top of high rise buildings.

- Bio-energy - biofuels - used in power stations and for transport systems, causing less impact on the environment.

- Ocean energy - thermal, tidal power or wave energy - this source of energy can be largely used in coastal regions, however it is still not fully developed.

Source: Droege, P 2005, The Renewable City: A Comprehensive guide to an urban revolution, Wiley, Chichester.

Image Source: Kuat, H 2013, 'Alternative Renewable Energy Sources', accessed 17 May 2014 < http://technologygreenenergy.blogspot.com.au/2013/07/alternative-renewable-energy-sources.html>

Curitiba's Efficient Transport

One of the major examples of efficient mass rapid transit in the case of Curitiba, Brazil. Implementing bus exclusive lanes, the government has reduced transport fuel consumption to 1/4 bellow any other Brazilian city. This initiative has inspired other cities in South America, as Quito and Bogotá - cited in a previous post.

The intent of the three times Major Jaime Lerner - also architect and urban planner - was to protect the city centre from the trend of massive increasing of car ownership during the 70s. For that, there was a large investment in public transport infrastructure and the opening of exclusive bus lanes, connecting all areas of the city.

Also, lower speed streets, and pedestrian exclusive streets were opening, improving safety in central areas streets and encouraging people to walk. In business district, only local traffic is allowed and lots of streets are still dedicated to pedestrians.

After the 70s, the system was continuously improved and single fare systems were implemented allowing low-income people living in distant areas to use the system easily. The system today transport 36 thousand people per hour in one direction costing one hudred times less than a subway rail system. Considering that 70% of the total journeys are made using public transport, it is clear its success.

Text Sources: Galvao, R 2007, Jaime Lerner: o realizador de sonhos, Planeta Sustentavel, accessed 17 May 2014 < http://planetasustentavel.abril.com.br/noticia/cidade/conteudo_258392.shtml>

Droege, P 2005, The Renewable City: A Comprehensive guide to an urban revolution, Wiley, Chichester.

Macedo, J 2004, 'Curitiba', in Citites, 21:6, accessed 17 May 2014 < http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275104001003>

Image Source: Dubiginski, D 2011, 'Onibus de Curitiba, accessed 14 May 2014 < http://www.onibusdecuritiba.com.br/expresso/>

Reducing Fossil Fuel in Transport

Transport has a large impact on the environment as it demands large amounts of land and energy, and pollutes the environment by burning fuel and splitting oil and other pollutants on the ground that affects directly the environment. Considering that, urban planning policies in many cities are trying to reduce fossil fuel in transport and its impacts.

Singapore - planning and pricing - The integration of land use and transport begun in the 70s with housing and settlement policies aiming to delivery affordable high-rise buildings in mixed use areas connected to mass rapid transit systems. Since then, the government introduced policies to reduce car ownership based on price, to encourage the use of public transport.

Quito - unifying transport systems - The government has invested in transport infrastructure creating trolley-bus corridors linked to a lines of regular buses. The trolley buses can accommodate 180 passengers and the regular buses 80, and the link between those saved time and money for passengers and contributed to reduce air pollution levels.

Bogotá - banking on buses - In one of the most densely cities, the government implemented a bus rapid transit to reduce congested streets - speed average of 10km/h in rush hours. Bus exclusive lanes were created 230km of a network of bicycle lanes, and also private cars were banned to circulate on central areas during rush hours.

Source: Droege, P 2005, The Renewable City: A Comprehensive guide to an urban revolution, Wiley, Chichester.

Reinventing Fire

Amory Lovins in an American environmental scientist and the writer of the book `Reinventing Fire`.  In this book, Lovins talks about the use of natural and renewable energy and how we could improve our effectiveness in producing energy. The aim is to show how countries - despite that he talks specifically using U.S. data as examples - could still have profitable energy business without using oil and coal by 2050. As we consider that in the U.S. 90% of the energy comes from oil, natural gas, coal and nuclear, it seem a big - and possible change.

In the following video, Lovins talks about how it could be possible by being more efficient and even more profitable by restructuring systems network, and how it could save U$5 trillion and support a 158% bigger economy - for example: reducing military forces costs; triple vehicles efficiency and later produce them for using electric energy, and also by rethinking the urban policies related to vehicles mobility in urban centres; triple the energy efficiency in buildings; and many other examples, all of them having energy efficiency and renewable on the top.

Source: Lovins, A 2011, Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era, Chelsea Green, White River Junction, Vermont.

Great Lakes Century

The Great Lakes Region - US and Canada - has 192 million acres and contain 21% of the word's fresh water and somehow the development of some areas has contributed to decrease water levels and rise the pollution.

To avoid that and preserve the lake's clean water for this and future generations, the master plan project developed for SOM - Skidmore, Owings & Merrill - intends to protect and revitalize this area in a plan for the next 100 years. By doing this, SOM engaged with scientists, politicians, environmentalists, and advocates in a proposal that was approved by the 95 Mayors of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Cities.

The main argument for this plan is the appearing of invasive species - Asian carp, air pollution - from coal-fired power plants, agriculture runoff - nourishes algae plants and leads to aquatic dead zones, and hard surface covering on nearby cities that flush stormwater and overflow sewers - spoiling beaches after heavy rains. And of course, the increasing population that without any planning worsen the conditions.

It is without a doubt a challenge to develop such a large plan and to work with different planning rules - which in the U.S. are locally controlled, tight money for infrastructure, and short election cycles, but only working in large scale and engaging with all members involved in the urban development and in the maintenance of the natural resources a plan to keep safe a precious natural environment like this can be successful.

More about the project here.

Text and Image Sources:  Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 2011, The Great Lakes Century, accessed 03 May 2014 < http://thegreatlakescenturyblog.som.com/about-us/ >

Litt, S 2013, Game Changers - Planning: The Great Lakes Century, accessed 03 May 2014 < http://www.metropolismag.com/January-2013/Game-Changers-Planning-The-Great-Lakes-Century/>

Wadi Hanifah Restoration

The Hanifah valley in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, rises in central Arabia and runs for 120km to southeast until the sands of the Empty Quarter desert. This watercourse is a landmark in Riyadh's landscape but it has been treated as an open sewer after the 70s when rapid growth overwhelmed the local environment.

Since 2001, the local development authority has worked with landscape architects and engineers in a project of restoration of this whole area by cleaning, landscaping and replanting native flora. It uses natural processes to improve the environmental conditions.

The landscape architects created ponds with algae that feeds fish and molluscs and the natural oxygenation system helps to diminish the pollution levels of the water. This was the first project to use this system in a large scale and now that it has been successful scientists are trying to use this technology in other cities.

By improving the environmental conditions the project also improved the economy and the health of the population with better air, water, and visual conditions, and so, creating also a place for public use, something unseen until then.

Image Source: Aga Khan Development Network, 2010, Wadi Hanifa Wetlands, Accessed 02 May 2014 <http://www.akdn.org/architecture/project.asp?id=2258>

Text Source: Environmental Management & Protection Department, 2002, Wadi Hanifah Comprehensive Development Plan - Executive Summary, accessed 02 May 2014 <http://www.unesco.org/culture/melina/arabie_saoudite/divers/2002.pdf>

Low-Carbon Energy to Africa

A recent study by Green Alliance shows that providing energy from low-carbon sources is the quickest and the cheapest way to help people living without electricity in Africa. Today, the main source of energy in places like Ghana is by using diesel generators.

The benefits of low-carbon energy is largely seen in Kenya, where off-grid solar energy has given electricity to 2.5 million of people and has helped to diminish maternal deaths by half.

In sub-Saharan Africa currently 50% of the population lives without access to electricity. The estimative to increase the access to electricity in this area by using low-carbon energy would cost around U$24 billion per year.

Providing access to electricity would improve the quality of hospitals, schools and houses by reducing costs of its maintenance. Children could study at night, hospitals would be more efficient and so people could be healthier, small local business could be more profitable, and lots of other clear advantages could happen. It would improve economic and social development in a sustainable way. How it could be done it is already known. Why it is still not done?

Text and Image Source: Green Alliance Blog, 2014, How low carbon energy can bring faster development to sub-Saharan Africa. Accessed 01 April 2014 <http://greenallianceblog.org.uk/2014/04/29/how-low-carbon-energy-can-bring-faster-development-to-sub-saharan-africa/>